Buffer Overflow
A buffer overflow occurs when a program writes more data to a memory buffer than it was allocated to hold, causing the excess data to spill into adjacent memory regions.
How It Works
A buffer overflow occurs when a program writes more data to a memory buffer than it was allocated to hold, causing the excess data to spill into adjacent memory regions. This overwrites whatever data or code exists there, corrupting program state and potentially giving attackers control over execution flow.
Stack-based overflows are the most common variant. When a function allocates a fixed-size buffer on the stack and then copies user-controlled input without proper bounds checking, attackers can overflow past the buffer to overwrite the function's return address. When the function completes, instead of returning to legitimate code, execution jumps to attacker-specified memory containing malicious shellcode. Heap-based overflows work differently—they corrupt heap metadata like chunk size fields or free list pointers, leading to arbitrary memory writes when the allocator processes the corrupted structures.
Modern exploitation bypasses defensive mechanisms through techniques like Return-Oriented Programming (ROP), which chains together existing code snippets to avoid non-executable memory protections. Attackers may also use heap spraying to reliably position shellcode at predictable addresses, defeating address randomization.
Impact
- Remote code execution — attacker gains ability to run arbitrary commands with the privileges of the vulnerable process
- Privilege escalation — exploiting kernel or setuid program overflows to gain root/SYSTEM access
- Denial of service — crashes and memory corruption that render systems unusable
- Information disclosure — reading sensitive data from adjacent memory regions that should be inaccessible
- Authentication bypass — overwriting security-critical variables like permission flags or user IDs
Real-World Examples
Fortinet FortiOS suffered a critical buffer overflow (CVE-2025-32756) that allowed unauthenticated remote attackers to execute code as root on firewalls and VPN gateways. Attackers actively exploited this to compromise enterprise network perimeters before patches were available.
The Slammer worm from 2003 exploited a stack overflow in Microsoft SQL Server, spreading to 75,000 hosts in ten minutes by sending a single malformed UDP packet that overwrote the return address with shellcode. No authentication was required.
OpenSSH historically contained a heap overflow in challenge-response authentication that allowed pre-authentication remote root compromise on Unix systems, demonstrating how memory corruption in privileged network services creates maximum impact scenarios.
Mitigation
- Memory-safe languages — Rust, Go, and modern managed languages prevent buffer overflows by design through automatic bounds checking
- Stack canaries — random values placed before return addresses that detect corruption before control transfer
- Address Space Layout Randomization (ASLR) — randomizes memory locations making exploitation less reliable
- Data Execution Prevention (DEP/NX) — marks memory regions as non-executable, preventing direct shellcode execution
- Bounds checking — validate input sizes before copying, use safe functions like
strncpyinstead ofstrcpy - Fuzzing and static analysis — automated testing to discover overflows before deployment
Recent CVEs (36656)
Adobe Media Encoder version 15.2 (and earlier) is affected by a memory corruption vulnerability when parsing a specially crafted file. Rated high severity (CVSS 7.8), this vulnerability is no authentication required, low attack complexity. No vendor patch available.
Adobe Illustrator version 25.2.3 (and earlier) is affected by an out-of-bounds read vulnerability that could lead to disclosure of memory. Rated low severity (CVSS 3.3), this vulnerability is no authentication required, low attack complexity. No vendor patch available.
Adobe Illustrator version 25.2.3 (and earlier) is affected by an memory corruption vulnerability when parsing a specially crafted file. Rated high severity (CVSS 7.8), this vulnerability is no authentication required, low attack complexity. No vendor patch available.
Adobe Photoshop versions 21.2.9 (and earlier) and 22.4.2 (and earlier) is affected by a stack overflow vulnerability due to insecure handling of a crafted PSD file, potentially resulting in arbitrary. Rated high severity (CVSS 7.8), this vulnerability is no authentication required, low attack complexity.
Adobe Character Animator version 4.2 (and earlier) is affected by an out-of-bounds Read vulnerability when parsing a specially crafted file. Rated low severity (CVSS 3.3), this vulnerability is no authentication required, low attack complexity.
Adobe Character Animator version 4.2 (and earlier) is affected by a memory corruption vulnerability when parsing a specially crafted file. Rated high severity (CVSS 7.8), this vulnerability is no authentication required, low attack complexity.
Adobe Prelude version 10.0 (and earlier) is affected by a memory corruption vulnerability when parsing a specially crafted file. Rated high severity (CVSS 7.8), this vulnerability is no authentication required, low attack complexity.
Adobe Premiere Pro version 15.2 (and earlier) is affected by a memory corruption vulnerability when parsing a specially crafted file. Rated high severity (CVSS 7.8), this vulnerability is no authentication required, low attack complexity.
Adobe Bridge version 11.0.2 (and earlier) is affected by an Out-of-bounds Read vulnerability when parsing a specially crafted file. Rated low severity (CVSS 3.3), this vulnerability is no authentication required, low attack complexity. No vendor patch available.
Adobe Bridge version 11.0.2 (and earlier) is affected by an Out-of-bounds Write vulnerability when parsing a specially crafted file. Rated high severity (CVSS 7.8), this vulnerability is no authentication required, low attack complexity. No vendor patch available.
Adobe Bridge version 11.0.2 (and earlier) is affected by an Out-of-bounds Write vulnerability when parsing a specially crafted file. Rated high severity (CVSS 7.8), this vulnerability is no authentication required, low attack complexity. No vendor patch available.
Acrobat Reader DC versions 2021.005.20054 (and earlier), 2020.004.30005 (and earlier) and 2017.011.30197 (and earlier) are affected by an Out-of-bounds Read vulnerability. Rated low severity (CVSS 3.3), this vulnerability is no authentication required, low attack complexity. No vendor patch available.
Acrobat Reader DC versions 2021.005.20054 (and earlier), 2020.004.30005 (and earlier) and 2017.011.30197 (and earlier) are affected by an out-of-bounds Read vulnerability. Rated low severity (CVSS 3.3), this vulnerability is no authentication required, low attack complexity. No vendor patch available.
Acrobat Reader DC versions 2021.005.20054 (and earlier), 2020.004.30005 (and earlier) and 2017.011.30197 (and earlier) are affected by an Out-of-bounds write vulnerability. Rated high severity (CVSS 7.8), this vulnerability is no authentication required, low attack complexity. No vendor patch available.
Acrobat Reader DC versions 2021.005.20054 (and earlier), 2020.004.30005 (and earlier) and 2017.011.30197 (and earlier) are affected by a Heap-based Buffer overflow vulnerability. Rated high severity (CVSS 7.8), this vulnerability is no authentication required, low attack complexity. No vendor patch available.
Acrobat Reader DC versions 2021.005.20054 (and earlier), 2020.004.30005 (and earlier) and 2017.011.30197 (and earlier) are affected by an out-of-bounds read vulnerability. Rated high severity (CVSS 7.1), this vulnerability is no authentication required, low attack complexity. No vendor patch available.
Adobe Bridge version 11.0.2 (and earlier) are affected by a Heap-based Buffer overflow vulnerability. Rated high severity (CVSS 7.8), this vulnerability is no authentication required, low attack complexity. No vendor patch available.
Adobe Illustrator version 25.2.3 (and earlier) is affected by an Out-of-bounds Write vulnerability when parsing a specially crafted file. Rated high severity (CVSS 7.8), this vulnerability is no authentication required, low attack complexity. No vendor patch available.
Adobe Illustrator version 25.2.3 (and earlier) is affected by an Out-of-bounds Write vulnerability when parsing a specially crafted file. Rated high severity (CVSS 7.8), this vulnerability is no authentication required, low attack complexity. No vendor patch available.
Adobe Media Encoder version 15.2 (and earlier) is affected by an Out-of-bounds Read vulnerability when parsing a specially crafted file. Rated high severity (CVSS 7.8), this vulnerability is no authentication required, low attack complexity. No vendor patch available.
Adobe Media Encoder version 15.2 (and earlier) is affected by an Out-of-bounds Read vulnerability when parsing a specially crafted file. Rated high severity (CVSS 7.8), this vulnerability is no authentication required, low attack complexity. No vendor patch available.
In TP-Link Wireless N Router WR840N an ARP poisoning attack can cause buffer overflow. Rated medium severity (CVSS 6.4). Public exploit code available and no vendor patch available.
An issue was discovered in tcp_rcv() in nptcp.c in HCC embedded InterNiche 4.0.1. Rated high severity (CVSS 7.5), this vulnerability is remotely exploitable, no authentication required, low attack complexity. No vendor patch available.
An issue was discovered in HCC embedded InterNiche 4.0.1. Rated high severity (CVSS 7.5), this vulnerability is remotely exploitable, no authentication required, low attack complexity. No vendor patch available.
An issue was discovered in HCC embedded InterNiche 4.0.1. Rated critical severity (CVSS 9.8), this vulnerability is remotely exploitable, no authentication required, low attack complexity. No vendor patch available.
A vulnerability in the Universal Plug-and-Play (UPnP) service of Cisco Small Business RV110W, RV130, RV130W, and RV215W Routers could allow an unauthenticated, remote attacker to execute arbitrary. Rated critical severity (CVSS 9.8), this vulnerability is remotely exploitable, no authentication required, low attack complexity. No vendor patch available.
Multiple exploitable integer truncation vulnerabilities exist within the MPEG-4 decoding functionality of the GPAC Project on Advanced Content library v1.0.1. Rated high severity (CVSS 8.8), this vulnerability is remotely exploitable, no authentication required, low attack complexity. Public exploit code available and no vendor patch available.
In OMA DRM, there is a possible memory corruption due to improper input validation. Rated medium severity (CVSS 6.7), this vulnerability is low attack complexity. No vendor patch available.
In OMA DRM, there is a possible memory corruption due to an integer overflow. Rated medium severity (CVSS 6.7), this vulnerability is low attack complexity. No vendor patch available.
In ged, there is a possible out of bounds write due to a missing bounds check. Rated medium severity (CVSS 6.7), this vulnerability is low attack complexity. No vendor patch available.
In asf extractor, there is a possible out of bounds read due to an incorrect bounds check. Rated medium severity (CVSS 5.5), this vulnerability is low attack complexity. No vendor patch available.
In clk driver, there is a possible out of bounds write due to an incorrect bounds check. Rated medium severity (CVSS 6.7), this vulnerability is low attack complexity. No vendor patch available.
Multiple exploitable integer overflow vulnerabilities exist within the MPEG-4 decoding functionality of the GPAC Project on Advanced Content library v1.0.1. Rated high severity (CVSS 8.8), this vulnerability is remotely exploitable, no authentication required, low attack complexity. Public exploit code available and no vendor patch available.
Multiple exploitable integer overflow vulnerabilities exist within the MPEG-4 decoding functionality of the GPAC Project on Advanced Content library v1.0.1. Rated high severity (CVSS 8.8), this vulnerability is remotely exploitable, no authentication required, low attack complexity. Public exploit code available and no vendor patch available.
Multiple exploitable integer overflow vulnerabilities exist within the MPEG-4 decoding functionality of the GPAC Project on Advanced Content library v1.0.1. Rated high severity (CVSS 8.8), this vulnerability is remotely exploitable, no authentication required, low attack complexity. Public exploit code available and no vendor patch available.
Multiple exploitable integer overflow vulnerabilities exist within the MPEG-4 decoding functionality of the GPAC Project on Advanced Content library v1.0.1. Rated high severity (CVSS 8.8), this vulnerability is remotely exploitable, no authentication required, low attack complexity. Public exploit code available and no vendor patch available.
Multiple exploitable integer overflow vulnerabilities exist within the MPEG-4 decoding functionality of the GPAC Project on Advanced Content library v1.0.1. Rated high severity (CVSS 8.8), this vulnerability is remotely exploitable, no authentication required, low attack complexity. Public exploit code available and no vendor patch available.
Multiple exploitable integer overflow vulnerabilities exist within the MPEG-4 decoding functionality of the GPAC Project on Advanced Content library v1.0.1. Rated high severity (CVSS 8.8), this vulnerability is remotely exploitable, no authentication required, low attack complexity. Public exploit code available and no vendor patch available.
Multiple exploitable integer overflow vulnerabilities exist within the MPEG-4 decoding functionality of the GPAC Project on Advanced Content library v1.0.1. Rated high severity (CVSS 8.8), this vulnerability is remotely exploitable, no authentication required, low attack complexity. Public exploit code available and no vendor patch available.
Multiple exploitable integer overflow vulnerabilities exist within the MPEG-4 decoding functionality of the GPAC Project on Advanced Content library v1.0.1. Rated high severity (CVSS 8.8), this vulnerability is remotely exploitable, no authentication required, low attack complexity. Public exploit code available and no vendor patch available.
Multiple exploitable integer overflow vulnerabilities exist within the MPEG-4 decoding functionality of the GPAC Project on Advanced Content library v1.0.1. Rated high severity (CVSS 8.8), this vulnerability is remotely exploitable, no authentication required, low attack complexity. Public exploit code available and no vendor patch available.
Multiple exploitable integer overflow vulnerabilities exist within the MPEG-4 decoding functionality of the GPAC Project on Advanced Content library v1.0.1. Rated high severity (CVSS 8.8), this vulnerability is remotely exploitable, no authentication required, low attack complexity. Public exploit code available and no vendor patch available.
Multiple exploitable integer overflow vulnerabilities exist within the MPEG-4 decoding functionality of the GPAC Project on Advanced Content library v1.0.1. Rated high severity (CVSS 8.8), this vulnerability is remotely exploitable, no authentication required, low attack complexity. Public exploit code available and no vendor patch available.
Multiple exploitable integer overflow vulnerabilities exist within the MPEG-4 decoding functionality of the GPAC Project on Advanced Content library v1.0.1. Rated high severity (CVSS 8.8), this vulnerability is remotely exploitable, no authentication required, low attack complexity. Public exploit code available and no vendor patch available.
Multiple exploitable integer overflow vulnerabilities exist within the MPEG-4 decoding functionality of the GPAC Project on Advanced Content library v1.0.1. Rated high severity (CVSS 8.8), this vulnerability is remotely exploitable, no authentication required, low attack complexity. Public exploit code available and no vendor patch available.
Multiple exploitable integer overflow vulnerabilities exist within the MPEG-4 decoding functionality of the GPAC Project on Advanced Content library v1.0.1. Rated high severity (CVSS 8.8), this vulnerability is remotely exploitable, no authentication required, low attack complexity. Public exploit code available and no vendor patch available.
Multiple exploitable integer overflow vulnerabilities exist within the MPEG-4 decoding functionality of the GPAC Project on Advanced Content library v1.0.1. Rated high severity (CVSS 8.8), this vulnerability is remotely exploitable, no authentication required, low attack complexity. Public exploit code available and no vendor patch available.
Multiple exploitable integer overflow vulnerabilities exist within the MPEG-4 decoding functionality of the GPAC Project on Advanced Content library v1.0.1. Rated high severity (CVSS 8.8), this vulnerability is remotely exploitable, no authentication required, low attack complexity. Public exploit code available and no vendor patch available.
A heap-based buffer overflow vulnerability exists in the XML Decompression PlainTextUncompressor::UncompressItem functionality of AT&T Labs’ Xmill 0.7. Rated critical severity (CVSS 9.8), this vulnerability is remotely exploitable, no authentication required, low attack complexity. Public exploit code available and no vendor patch available.
A buffer overflow vulnerability in the TCP/IP stack of Juniper Networks Junos OS allows an attacker to send specific sequences of packets to the device thereby causing a Denial of Service (DoS). Rated high severity (CVSS 7.5), this vulnerability is remotely exploitable, no authentication required, low attack complexity. No vendor patch available.
Zint Barcode Generator before 2.10.0 has a one-byte buffer over-read, related to is_last_single_ascii in code1.c, and rs_encode_uint in reedsol.c. Rated medium severity (CVSS 6.5), this vulnerability is remotely exploitable, no authentication required, low attack complexity. Public exploit code available.
Mozilla developers and community members reported memory safety bugs present in Firefox 90. Rated high severity (CVSS 8.8), this vulnerability is remotely exploitable, no authentication required, low attack complexity. No vendor patch available.
Mozilla developers reported memory safety bugs present in Firefox 90 and Firefox ESR 78.12. Rated high severity (CVSS 8.8), this vulnerability is remotely exploitable, no authentication required, low attack complexity. No vendor patch available.
Firefox incorrectly treated an inline list-item element as a block element, resulting in an out of bounds read or memory corruption, and a potentially exploitable crash. Rated high severity (CVSS 8.8), this vulnerability is remotely exploitable, no authentication required, low attack complexity. Public exploit code available and no vendor patch available.
A suspected race condition when calling getaddrinfo led to memory corruption and a potentially exploitable crash. Rated high severity (CVSS 8.1), this vulnerability is remotely exploitable, no authentication required. Public exploit code available and no vendor patch available.
A use-after-free vulnerability in media channels could have led to memory corruption and a potentially exploitable crash. Rated high severity (CVSS 8.8), this vulnerability is remotely exploitable, no authentication required, low attack complexity. Public exploit code available and no vendor patch available.
Instruction reordering resulted in a sequence of instructions that would cause an object to be incorrectly considered during garbage collection. Rated high severity (CVSS 8.8), this vulnerability is remotely exploitable, no authentication required, low attack complexity. Public exploit code available and no vendor patch available.
Uninitialized memory in a canvas object could have caused an incorrect free() leading to memory corruption and a potentially exploitable crash. Rated high severity (CVSS 8.8), this vulnerability is remotely exploitable, no authentication required, low attack complexity. Public exploit code available and no vendor patch available.
A memory corruption vulnerability exists in the ISO Parsing functionality of Disc Soft Ltd Deamon Tools Pro 8.3.0.0767. Rated critical severity (CVSS 9.8), this vulnerability is remotely exploitable, no authentication required, low attack complexity. Public exploit code available and no vendor patch available.
A memory corruption vulnerability exists in the XML-parsing ParseAttribs functionality of AT&T Labs’ Xmill 0.7. Rated critical severity (CVSS 9.8), this vulnerability is remotely exploitable, no authentication required, low attack complexity. Public exploit code available and no vendor patch available.
In sqlite3_str_vappendf of sqlite3.c, there is a possible out of bounds write due to improper input validation. Rated high severity (CVSS 7.8), this vulnerability is low attack complexity. No vendor patch available.
In noteAtomLogged of StatsdStats.cpp, there is a possible out of bounds write due to a missing bounds check. Rated high severity (CVSS 7.8), this vulnerability is low attack complexity. No vendor patch available.
In verifyBufferObject of Parcel.cpp, there is a possible out of bounds read due to an improper input validation. Rated medium severity (CVSS 5.5), this vulnerability is low attack complexity. This Out-of-bounds Read vulnerability could allow attackers to read data from memory outside the intended buffer boundaries.
In wifi driver, there is a possible out of bounds read due to a missing bounds check. Rated medium severity (CVSS 6.5), this vulnerability is no authentication required, low attack complexity. No vendor patch available.
In wifi driver, there is a possible out of bounds read due to a missing bounds check. Rated medium severity (CVSS 6.5), this vulnerability is no authentication required, low attack complexity. No vendor patch available.
In wifi driver, there is a possible out of bounds read due to a missing bounds check. Rated medium severity (CVSS 6.5), this vulnerability is no authentication required, low attack complexity. No vendor patch available.
In wifi driver, there is a possible out of bounds read due to a missing bounds check. Rated medium severity (CVSS 6.5), this vulnerability is no authentication required, low attack complexity. No vendor patch available.
In wifi driver, there is a possible out of bounds read due to a missing bounds check. Rated medium severity (CVSS 6.5), this vulnerability is no authentication required, low attack complexity. No vendor patch available.
In flv extractor, there is a possible out of bounds write due to a missing bounds check. Rated high severity (CVSS 7.8), this vulnerability is low attack complexity. No vendor patch available.
In asf extractor, there is a possible out of bounds write due to a missing bounds check. Rated high severity (CVSS 7.8), this vulnerability is low attack complexity. No vendor patch available.
In asf extractor, there is a possible out of bounds write due to a missing bounds check. Rated high severity (CVSS 7.8), this vulnerability is low attack complexity. No vendor patch available.
In BITSTREAM_FLUSH of ih264e_bitstream.h, there is a possible out of bounds write due to a heap buffer overflow. Rated high severity (CVSS 7.8), this vulnerability is low attack complexity. This Out-of-bounds Write vulnerability could allow attackers to write data beyond allocated buffer boundaries leading to code execution or crashes.
An exploitable integer truncation vulnerability exists within the MPEG-4 decoding functionality of the GPAC Project on Advanced Content library v1.0.1. Rated high severity (CVSS 8.8), this vulnerability is remotely exploitable, no authentication required, low attack complexity. Public exploit code available and no vendor patch available.
An exploitable integer truncation vulnerability exists within the MPEG-4 decoding functionality of the GPAC Project on Advanced Content library v1.0.1. Rated high severity (CVSS 8.8), this vulnerability is remotely exploitable, no authentication required, low attack complexity. Public exploit code available and no vendor patch available.
Node.js before 16.6.1, 14.17.5, and 12.22.5 is vulnerable to a use after free attack where an attacker might be able to exploit the memory corruption, to change process behavior. Rated high severity (CVSS 7.5), this vulnerability is remotely exploitable, no authentication required, low attack complexity.
A vulnerability in Pulse Connect Secure before 9.1R12 could allow an authenticated administrator or compromised Pulse Connect Secure device in a load-balanced configuration to perform a buffer. Rated high severity (CVSS 7.2), this vulnerability is remotely exploitable, low attack complexity. No vendor patch available.
Realtek Jungle SDK version v2.x up to v3.4.14B provides an HTTP web server exposing a management interface that can be used to configure the access point. Rated critical severity (CVSS 9.8), this vulnerability is remotely exploitable, no authentication required, low attack complexity. Public exploit code available.
Realtek Jungle SDK version v2.x up to v3.4.14B provides a diagnostic tool called 'MP Daemon' that is usually compiled as 'UDPServer' binary. Rated critical severity (CVSS 9.8), this vulnerability is remotely exploitable, no authentication required, low attack complexity. Public exploit code available.
Realtek Jungle SDK version v2.x up to v3.4.14B provides a 'WiFi Simple Config' server that implements both UPnP and SSDP protocols. Rated critical severity (CVSS 9.8), this vulnerability is remotely exploitable, no authentication required, low attack complexity. Public exploit code available.
Realtek Jungle SDK version v2.x up to v3.4.14B provides a 'WiFi Simple Config' server that implements both UPnP and SSDP protocols. Rated high severity (CVSS 7.5), this vulnerability is remotely exploitable, no authentication required, low attack complexity. Public exploit code available.
A stack-based buffer overflow vulnerability exists in the command-line-parsing HandleFileArg functionality of AT&T Labs' Xmill 0.7. Rated high severity (CVSS 7.8), this vulnerability is low attack complexity. Public exploit code available and no vendor patch available.
Within the function HandleFileArg the argument filepattern is under control of the user who passes it in from the command line. Rated high severity (CVSS 7.8), this vulnerability is low attack complexity. Public exploit code available and no vendor patch available.
A stack-based buffer overflow vulnerability exists in the command-line-parsing HandleFileArg functionality of AT&T Labs’ Xmill 0.7. Rated high severity (CVSS 7.8), this vulnerability is low attack complexity. Public exploit code available and no vendor patch available.
A heap-based buffer overflow vulnerability exists in the XML Decompression LabelDict::Load functionality of AT&T Labs’ Xmill 0.7. Rated critical severity (CVSS 9.8), this vulnerability is remotely exploitable, no authentication required, low attack complexity. Public exploit code available and no vendor patch available.
A heap-based buffer overflow vulnerability exists in the XML Decompression EnumerationUncompressor::UncompressItem functionality of AT&T Labs’ Xmill 0.7. Rated critical severity (CVSS 9.8), this vulnerability is remotely exploitable, no authentication required, low attack complexity. Public exploit code available and no vendor patch available.
A flaw was found in the Linux kernel netfilter implementation in versions prior to 5.5-rc7. Rated medium severity (CVSS 4.4), this vulnerability is low attack complexity. No vendor patch available.
Polipo through 1.1.1, when NDEBUG is used, allows a heap-based buffer overflow during parsing of a Range header. Rated high severity (CVSS 7.5), this vulnerability is remotely exploitable, no authentication required, low attack complexity. Public exploit code available and no vendor patch available.
TensorFlow is an end-to-end open source platform for machine learning. Rated medium severity (CVSS 5.5), this vulnerability is low attack complexity. This Out-of-bounds Read vulnerability could allow attackers to read data from memory outside the intended buffer boundaries.
TensorFlow is an end-to-end open source platform for machine learning. Rated medium severity (CVSS 5.5), this vulnerability is low attack complexity. This Out-of-bounds Read vulnerability could allow attackers to read data from memory outside the intended buffer boundaries.
TensorFlow is an end-to-end open source platform for machine learning. Rated high severity (CVSS 7.8), this vulnerability is low attack complexity. This Out-of-bounds Read vulnerability could allow attackers to read data from memory outside the intended buffer boundaries.